Strange and obscure folklore and sayings relating animals

[Onychorhynchus coronatus]

Malagasy people considered the gold ring cowry to be a talisman. The Mahafely and Sakalava people used the opercula of murex shells to make a perfume for sorcery; the Sakalava used the shells in other magical rituals. The Triton’s trumpet shell was used as a trumpet in war, to call the sea to calm the wind and to warn of a storm or a spreading locust swarm. The male trumpet shell gave a powerful sound and could be used on its own or with a female trumpet shell, which could not be used on its own.

Fascinating and thank you for sharing @Dassie rat !

I didn't know about the Sakalava peoples use of this snail shell or its cultural significance but I think (if I remember correctly) that I've read a little bit about their fady towards the highland streaked tenrec and posted about this on this thread.

 

[Onychorhynchus coronatus]

A bizarre folkloric belief surrounds the Eurasian pine marten in Romania.

In some rural areas of the country it is believed that the pine marten (known as "Jderul de copac" in Romanian) will come out from the forests at night and enter villages where it seeks stables in order to plate and braid the manes of horses.


Sources: Pine martens in world culture and folklore - PineMarten.ie

Photo credit to @Giant Eland.

 

[Onychorhynchus coronatus]

Myths that lynx, wolves and wild boars as especially dangerous animals are still common among hunters and foresters in Poland.

Despite numerous stories, I was rather surprised that I could not find any credible record of a wild lynx attacking a human. Wolf attacks were extremely rare, and concerned attacks on children and small women herding livestock in the 19. and early 20. centuries. Despite numerous tales, I could find no story of a wolf attacking a human in living memory, wolf attacking an adult male human, attacking a person during hunt, or attacking a group of people (despite the stories of throwing a coachman out of a troika etc.). Wild boars attack a hunter after being shot and wounded, but, contrary to widespread knowledge, I could not find a single first-person account that a big male boar, a sow with piglets or any other wild boar(s) attacked a person in the forest unprovoked.

Fake stories are partially told in hope of allowing legal trophy hunting of lynx and wolf, as 'maintaining a healthy fear of humans among dangerous animals'. Part of the story is self-elevation between hunters as doing dangerous job. In fact, the only danger faced by a hunter is being casually shot by a colleague.

The underlying reason, however, is the culture of hunters, foresters and fishermen of telling tall tales. They work alone in the wilderness, so their stories cannot be easily refuted. Maybe a person really met a group of wolves chasing him up a tree or caught an enormous fish which broke the fishing line just before being pulled out of water? This is part of a long cultural tradition of European folklore that forest as a place where strange and dangerous things can be encountered. Man-attacking lynxes and wolves are just another take of stories of ogres, werewolves, elven folk or Big Bad Wolf.

I think that these folk tales with regards to the last large Eurasian mammal predators are pretty common everywhere where these animals remain.

That is really interesting, I would have thought there would have been at least one provoked attack on a human by a lynx or perhaps the case of a rabid animal biting or scratching somebody.

I think we already discussed the fact in other threads that there have been recorded attacks by wolves on humans including fatal ones that have happened in living memory in Northern Spain

That said I do agree with you that these kind of folkloric or urban legend type beliefs that represent bears, wolves, lynx and boar as ferocious creatures are utilized heavily by the pro-hunting / trophy hunting lobby in many European countries to try to create popular support for the hunting of these animals.

 

[Jurek7]

I don't mean that lynx never bitten or scratched anybody anywhere in the world, only that I was unable to find a record of a wild lynx actually attacking a person in Poland, and no hunter could come up with an actual story (despite all of them knowing that lynx are dangerous).

Another story which I suspect to be a tale, but is even found in modern scientific texts is that young European bison can be preyed upon by Eurasian lynx. Even a half-year bison, which is still well protected by its mother, weights more than lynxs largest prey, and 3-4 times more than the lynx itself.

 

[Onychorhynchus coronatus]

I don't mean that lynx never bitten or scratched anybody anywhere in the world, only that I was unable to find a record of a wild lynx actually attacking a person in Poland, and no hunter could come up with an actual story (despite all of them knowing that lynx are dangerous).

Another story which I suspect to be a tale, but is even found in modern scientific texts is that young European bison can be preyed upon by Eurasian lynx. Even a half-year bison, which is still well protected by its mother, weights more than lynxs largest prey, and 3-4 times more than the lynx itself.

Yes, I don't think it is an animal in its wild state that would go out of its way to attack a human being at all, quite the opposite actually as it would be very evasive and hide away from humans.

Actually come to think of it I find it very odd that lynx have such a savage reputation in the folklore of Macedonia and Romania as these are countries which are practically famous for having a population with tolerant, pragmatic and non-sensationalist attitudes towards brown bear and wolves.

Again agree with you regarding bison, I find it implausible that a lynx would attack a young bison as not only would the calf pose an enormous challenge of subduing and killing but it would also be protected by its mother and other members of the herd, so it would be suicide.

 

[Jurek7]

Re: pine marten - I heard some people in Poland have a similar tale that weasel tangles manes of horses.

Re: lynx - I think it may be because lynx in SE Europe is rarely seen animal and lives shyly in low population density. Animals linked to superstitions are usually locally rare or rarely seen. Therefore believing the tale carries little practical cost and there is little chance to discredit the tale.

 

[Onychorhynchus coronatus]

Re: pine marten - I heard some people in Poland have a similar tale that weasel tangles manes of horses.

Re: lynx - I think it may be because lynx in SE Europe is rarely seen animal and lives shyly in low population density. Animals linked to superstitions are usually locally rare or rarely seen. Therefore believing the tale carries little practical cost and there is little chance to discredit the tale.

Very interesting that this tale exists and is associated with other mustelids in Poland.

Yes, you could well be right about that, I do think that how elusive the lynx is makes it loom larger in folklore.

 

[Onychorhynchus coronatus]

In many rural areas of Romania where christianity is practiced a strange belief exists about the grey wolf (called "lup" in Romanian) and the existence of werewolves.

It is believed that if a child should be conceived on a Christmas eve or Easter against the observance of sexual abistenence encouraged on the population by the church then the child will be born as a werewolf (known as the "vukodlak" or "pricolici") with facial features of the grey wolf:

"Some werewolf legends' attribute enchantment to the conception of the child on the eve of Christmas or Easter, or to birth on Easter. Were-beings appear in the villages on the eve of high religious holidays such as Christmas, New Year's Day and Easter. Christian holidays are likewise the focus of sexual restrictions inscribed in the church canons; that is, one must observe abstinence from sexual relations on the eve of Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost."

"Failure to do so, and the possible conception of a child will, according to informants, bring deformity and 'animal characteristics' to the infant at birth. The victim will be cursed with 'wolf ears,' for example, or a 'wolfs head,' or will have a harelip, and generally will be 'unlucky' and even malicious. Th e legends tell of children who, conceived on the eve of Christmas or Easter in violation of the religious canon, or born on Easter, became werewolves and harboured resentment and hostility in their hearts against their parents for the latter's transgression."

This belief is believed by folklorists and archeologists to have had its roots in a Christian propagandic reaction to the pagan festivities of the Pre-Christian ancient Greco-Roman civilizations :

"It is noteworthy that in Romania, as in eastern European Slavic tradition generally, there is a mythological being that is said to eat the moon and cause eclipses; in Slavic lore, it is a werewolf, a vukodlak,1 a term that is confined to 'vampire' in modern usage. The Romanian equivalent is a vircolac, in the past a werewolf or vampire, but more commonly now an unbaptized, abandoned infant with a voracious appetite that has become a sort of woods spirit. In prechristian Roman and Greek civilizations, February was the month to remember the dead and welcome animal spirits."



Sources: "Romanian Werewolves: Seasons, Ritual, Cycles", Harry Senn, 2012 (Journal: Folklore).



Photo credits to @Jogy and @zootiger.

 

[Jurek7]

People looking for historical accounts of wolf attacks found somewhat related tale: that a wolf attacking a man (often rabid) was often believed to be under an magical spell or a shapeshifted wizard/witch. This is how it was rationalized why a normally shy animal attacked a human.

There was also a number of stories in Medieval Europe where people were turned into wolves or other wild animals as punishment for some evil deeds. Here, the animal usually aided people and sought to repay its sins. This helpful, meek werewolf is the opposite of the werewolf cliche in modern fiction. A slightly similar motif is in the 'Beauty and the Beast'.

 

[Onychorhynchus coronatus]

In Romania the eve of Saint Andrew's day (November 29th) is considered to be "the night of the wolf" ("Noaptea lupului" in Romanian).

It is believed that during this particular night evil spirits and the werewolf roam gleefully through the forests and villages, towns and cities and viciously attack (in the case of the lycanthrope) or possess (in the case of spirits) people who are found outside.

The normal fabric of the universe is lifted and inverted during the night of the wolves and the world of the dead enters and interacts with the world of the living allowing spirits and werewolves to run rampant.

People within their houses hang crucixes and cloves of garlic above their doors and alongside windows which in folk belief are believed to ward off the entrance of the rampant werewolf or spirits into human dwellings.

On the night of the wolf attacks on both people and livestock are believed to be expected and commonplace so farmers traditionally would attach a small cross with wax to the left horn of each of their cattle to ward off wolves.

A ritual known as the "guardian of the garlic" is performed by many housebound families during this night in which young people of the family will smear garlic over doors and windows to ward off the entrance of werewolves.

Each young woman attending this event must bring three cloves of garlic which are placed in a vase surrounded by candles which is guarded by an elderly woman who watches over it while the young then celebrate until dawn by dancing, singing, drinking and joking (merriment is believed to be an added deterent to drive away the predatory werewolf).

The night of the wolves is a Christian tradition that likely has its roots in a syncretic reaction to the Dacian Pre-Christian civilization of ancient Romania which venerated the wolf and performed lupine themed festivities in November / Autumn.

In fact the Dacian name for themselves "Daoi" translated from the Dacian language means "the people of the wolves" thus it might be said accurately that the Romanian peoples are partly descendents of these ancient "people of the wolves".


Sources: "Some Werewolf Legends and the Calusari Ritual in Romania", Harry Senn, 1977(Journal: East European Quarterly) & "Romanian Werewolves: Seasons, Ritual, Cycles", Harry Senn, 2012 (Journal: Folklore).


Photo credits to @Clem, @twilighter, @Nod, @ro6ca66 and @Jackwow.

 

[Onychorhynchus coronatus]

People looking for historical accounts of wolf attacks found somewhat related tale: that a wolf attacking a man (often rabid) was often believed to be under an magical spell or a shapeshifted wizard/witch. This is how it was rationalized why a normally shy animal attacked a human.

There was also a number of stories in Medieval Europe where people were turned into wolves or other wild animals as punishment for some evil deeds. Here, the animal usually aided people and sought to repay its sins. This helpful, meek werewolf is the opposite of the werewolf cliche in modern fiction. A slightly similar motif is in the 'Beauty and the Beast'.

Yes, you are absolutely right that these wolf attacks in Medieval to Early Modern Europe were conceptualized through the religious / superstitious cultural lens that gripped the popular imagination of that time so would have been seen as black magic, witchcraft or associated in some way with devils and demons.

But I have to say that though the historic wolf attacks on humans recorded in the literature were often done by rabid wolves this was not always the case and we really do have to acknowledge that as it is historic fact.

There are actually numerous records of wolf attacks on humans that were very clearly predatory in nature with humans being actively hunted as prey.

The "Loups de Paris" in 13th century France, the famous "Bête du Gévaudan" in 18th century France and the "Wolf von Ansbach" in 15th century Germany were almost certainly individual wolves or packs of wolves that had for whatever reason ( I believe for underlying ecological reasons / ecological disequilibrium) developed predatory behaviours towards human beings.

 

[Haliaeetus]

The story of the Bête du Gévaudan is very interesting, mainly because its sociological background.
It took place in the Cévennes, one of the poorest regions of France in the 18th century, and struck by a rampant civil war between Catholics and Protestants. In this place local people were very supersitious and poorly educated : there was especially a common belief in the "meneurs de loups" (sorcerers that had the magical power to train the wolves).
It's now supposed that landlords or potent people have raised wolves (and maybe other animals like dogs and hyenas) to attack peasants of the "wrong" confession.
There are a lot of clues in this sense : the animals couldn't be hit by bullets (they had probably armours on their backs), the heads of the victims were often cut (inusual behaviour for wild animals), and the last "beast" seemed to be very tame with its killer (that had also the reputation to be a sorcerer!).
There's a 50 mn documentary about it (in French).

I can explain in other post some other aspects of the wolf folklore in France and Europe...

 

[Onychorhynchus coronatus]

In the Southern Balkans the wolf is an animal that is imbued with a cultural and totemic significance that has made it the subject of traditions and rituals for millennia.

The wolf is conceived in a nuanced way as neither wholely positive or negative but possessing both qualities and as such many festivities and celebrations that exist that involve the iconography of the Eurasian gray wolf:

"Inviting wolves to Christmas dinner is widespread in Serbia and Dalmatia, whereby one wishes that the wolves will not show up again until the next Christmas dinner; in Bosnia, men disguised as wolves are an important element of wedding ceremonies; and there are numerous sayings and folk beliefs related to wolves."

However, the most prominent celebrations that feature wolves are the numerous Saint days which happen throughout the year and which all incorporate the Pre-Christian pagan symbology of the wolf:

"Especially among the Serbs, Macedonians and Bulgarians, numerous prescribed or proscribed activities can be found throughout the year and in relation to several holidays, especially in the late autumn and winter when the danger of wolves is the greatest, the purpose of which is to prevent wolves from harming the animals."

"Serbs in Croatia perform several rituals against dangers from wolves on the feasts of St. Tanasije Potopljenik (Atanasije Atonski; 5 July/18 July),1 St. Nicholas (6 December/19 December), St. Danilo (17 December/30 December), and St. Andrej (St. Andrew; 30 November/13 December). Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina celebrate the feasts of St. Danilo, St. Ignjat (St. Ignacio; 20 December/2 January), the seventh day after St. George’s Day (the so-called malo jurjevo; 30 April/13 May) and St. Andrew in relation to wolves. In Serbia, rituals against the dangers of wolves are performed on St. George’s Day (23 April/6 May) and on malo jurjevo, on Vavedenije sv. Bogorodice (the Orthodox feast of the Annunciation; 21 November/4 December), on St. Andrew’s Day, on Badnji dan (the day before Christmas)."

"In Macedonia, rituals against wolves are performed on St. George’s Day, during the Christmas fast, on Letnik (also called Marta, Martenica etc.; 1 March/14 March), on St. Aralempije’s Day (Thursday before the Archangel Michael’s Day), St. Luca’s Day and from 1–3 February."

The "wolf holidays" of the Balkans are a unique festivity to the region and are not observed in other regions of the Slavic world:

"Even though this type of legend is known among other Slavic peoples as well as elsewhere in Europe, wolf holidays, based on the belief regarding the Master of the Wolves whose primary function is to provide food for the wolves as verbalised in this legend, are not known anywhere else but in the Balkans."

However, the prowess and predatory nature of the wolf has also in recent history led it to be appropriated as a totem by far more sinister and bloodthirsty forces acting within Balkan society.

During the Balkan wars of the 1990's the wolf was adopted as a symbol of ferocity and martial prowess by several Serbian paramillitary groups such as the notorious "Wolves of Vučjak" ( in Serbian the "Vukovi s Vučjaka") who committed numerous genocidal acts of mass murder against other ethnic groups.


Sources: "WOLF HOLIDAYS AMONG SOUTHERN SLAVS IN THE BALKANS", Mirjam Mencej, 2009 (Journal: Acta Ethnographica Hungarica ).



Photo credits to @AdrianW1963 and @Patrick87.

 

[Onychorhynchus coronatus]

The story of the Bête du Gévaudan is very interesting, mainly because its sociological background.
It took place in the Cévennes, one of the poorest regions of France in the 18th century, and struck by a rampant civil war between Catholics and Protestants. In this place local people were very supersitious and poorly educated : there was especially a common belief in the "meneurs de loups" (sorcerers that had the magical power to train the wolves).
It's now supposed that landlords or potent people have raised wolves (and maybe other animals like dogs and hyenas) to attack peasants of the "wrong" confession.
There are a lot of clues in this sense : the animals couldn't be hit by bullets (they had probably armours on their backs), the heads of the victims were often cut (inusual behaviour for wild animals), and the last "beast" seemed to be very tame with its killer (that had also the reputation to be a sorcerer!).
There's a 50 mn documentary about it (in French).

I can explain in other post some other aspects of the wolf folklore in France and Europe...

Yes, I totally agree, I am fascinated by "Bête du Gévaudan" too and at one point I read a lot about the history of this phenomenon.

In my opinion the best book on the subject of the beast of Gévaudan is "Monsters of the Gévaudan: The Making of a Beast" by Jay Smith which is just an excellent and pretty exhaustive scholarly story of the history of these wolf attacks and the historical backdrop of these.

Of course I agree with you that there was a lot of religious secretarianism and violent conflict between Catholics and Protestants during that period but I personally don't think the wolves were the trained "attack dogs" of secretarian bad actors and am not convinced by many of these kinds of theories.

The most compelling answer / explanation in my opinion is the one that was reached by Jay Smith in the book that I mentioned which is not the most colourful or exciting account in comparison with the others out there but is the most realistic and convincing one (IMO).

Basically Smith suggests that these were numerous attacks by one or two packs of wolves (one of which contained an exceptionally large adult wolf) that were both driven by underlying ecological stressors such as lack of wild ungulate prey, habituation of these animals to human communities and the rural French custom of the time of leaving child shepherds to guard livestock in remote areas.

 

[Onychorhynchus coronatus]

The story of the Bête du Gévaudan is very interesting, mainly because its sociological background.
It took place in the Cévennes, one of the poorest regions of France in the 18th century, and struck by a rampant civil war between Catholics and Protestants. In this place local people were very supersitious and poorly educated : there was especially a common belief in the "meneurs de loups" (sorcerers that had the magical power to train the wolves).
It's now supposed that landlords or potent people have raised wolves (and maybe other animals like dogs and hyenas) to attack peasants of the "wrong" confession.
There are a lot of clues in this sense : the animals couldn't be hit by bullets (they had probably armours on their backs), the heads of the victims were often cut (inusual behaviour for wild animals), and the last "beast" seemed to be very tame with its killer (that had also the reputation to be a sorcerer!).
There's a 50 mn documentary about it (in French).

I can explain in other post some other aspects of the wolf folklore in France and Europe...

Oh and please do post as much as you want about other aspects of wolf folklore in France and wider Europe

Feel free, I would find it very interesting and that is what I wanted this thread to be, a place to discuss these things

 

[Haliaeetus]

The documentary about the Bête du Gévaudan can be watched here (only in French):

For me, this story is really unusual, even for people who knew the wolf attacks in their life.
The abundance of marvelous details is a sign that this so-called beast wasn't a normal wolf.
First the animals escaped all the attempts of killing, even when the king sent the best hunters of the country (experimented in wolf hunting) and even elite battalions. They were supposed to be covered with magic.
Then, in the final episode, the beast was killed by Jean Chastel, a peasant with a strong reputation of sorcery (he was supposed to be a meneur de loups).
The beast didn't show fear or aggressivity against him, and was finally killed by bullets made with the metal of a Virgin Mary statue!

Obviously, the scene took place in a context where wolf attacks were numerous, because of the factors explained by @Onychorhynchus coronatus

The historian Xavier de Planhol explained the history of wolf/man conflicts in France (in Le Paysage animal, Fayard, 2004).
He highlighted that most conflicts took place between the 14th (but not before) and the beginning of the 19th century, before the gradual extirpation of wolves in the country.
My personal hypothesis is linked to the large clearings of the 10-13th centuries, that reduced the wild ungulate populations, and mostly to the harsh conditions of the 14th century in France, that constrained the wolves to hunt domestic animals and even humans in poor physical condition (children, elders, hurted soldiers...). I guess that they roamed also near the graveyards and the gallows, where they were "preys" easy to capture.
Most episodes of predation of humans by wolves were also frequently linked to periods of political unrest and/or weakness of the public powers : Guerre de Cent Ans, Guerres de Religion, Révolution Française... and the religious conflicts of the Cévennes (a bastion of Protestant religion, that survived in semi-clandestine condition).

I can add that the episode of the Bête du Gévaudan took place in the middle of the Siècle des Lumières, the time of Voltaire and Rousseau.
The persistance of such an island of superstition and arrieration in the middle of France was obviously a subject of curiosity in this time.

 

[Onychorhynchus coronatus]

The documentary about the Bête du Gévaudan can be watched here (only in French):

For me, this story is really abnormal, even for people who knew the wolf attacks in their life.
The abundance of marvelous details is a sign that this so-called beast wasn't a normal wolf.
First the animals escaped all the attempts of killing, even when the king sent the best hunters of the country (experimented in wolf hunting) and even elite battalions. They were supposed to be covered with magic.
Then, in the final episode, the beast was killed by Jean Chastel, a peasant with a strong reputation of sorcery (he was supposed to be a meneur de loups).
The beast didn't show fear or aggressivity against him, and was finally killed by bullets made with the metal of a Virgin Mary statue!

Yes, but this is why the book by Smith on the beast is so interesting and compelling (really recommend it) because he addresses and demystifies why the legends about the invulnerability of the wolf / wolves arose.

A lot of the myths were largely due to this being an age of emerging mass printed proto-tabloid literature which like the "Jack the ripper" case in the 19th century led to huge amounts of media exageration and sensationalism in order to sell these publications.

The result was that the media image of the "beast" became this larger than life creature / demonic entity that resembled that of the film "Brotherhood of the wolf" rather than what it was which was an abnormally large and oddly coloured wolf and several other individual wolves of one or more packs.

The fact is that, yes, I agree, the hunters sent out by the king of France did fail to kill their quarry and this was highly unusual and there were similarly many strange occurrences that happened during the years of the attacks and the hunt for this animal (perhaps strange because this was a different age and despite the enlightenment science was still ascendent so the accounts of the people involved reflect this mentality).

However, the logistics of the hunting were often compromised by the terrain / topography of the region, flawed leadership / turnover of leaders and the fact that at times they didn't even know (because of the conflicting accounts received from peasants and the media sensationalism ) what they were hunting for and where to look for it.

Moreover, there were some of these characters like the two Normandy noblemen / professional wolf hunters (can't remember their names, sorry) who were not the most reliable eye-witnesses or indeed trustworthy in any sense and who even actively sabotaged efforts.

 

[Onychorhynchus coronatus]

The documentary about the Bête du Gévaudan can be watched here (only in French):

For me, this story is really unusual, even for people who knew the wolf attacks in their life.
The abundance of marvelous details is a sign that this so-called beast wasn't a normal wolf.
First the animals escaped all the attempts of killing, even when the king sent the best hunters of the country (experimented in wolf hunting) and even elite battalions. They were supposed to be covered with magic.
Then, in the final episode, the beast was killed by Jean Chastel, a peasant with a strong reputation of sorcery (he was supposed to be a meneur de loups).
The beast didn't show fear or aggressivity against him, and was finally killed by bullets made with the metal of a Virgin Mary statue!

Obviously, the scene took place in a context where wolf attacks were numerous, because of the factors explained by @Onychorhynchus coronatus

The historian Xavier de Planhol explained the history of wolf/man conflicts in France (in Le Paysage animal, Fayard, 2004).
He highlighted that most conflicts took place between the 14th (but not before) and the beginning of the 19th century, before the gradual extirpation of wolves in the country.
My personal hypothesis is linked to the large clearings of the 10-13th centuries, that reduced the wild ungulate populations, and mostly to the harsh conditions of the 14th century in France, that constrained the wolves to hunt domestic animals and even humans in poor physical condition (children, elders, hurted soldiers...). I guess that they roamed also near the graveyards and the gallows, where they were "preys" easy to capture.
Most episodes of predation of humans by wolves were also frequently linked to periods of political unrest and/or weakness of the public powers : Guerre de Cent Ans, Guerres de Religion, Révolution Française... and the religious conflicts of the Cévennes (a bastion of Protestant religion, that survived in semi-clandestine condition).

I can add that the episode of the Bête du Gévaudan took place in the middle of the Siècle des Lumières, the time of Voltaire and Rousseau.
The persistance of such an island of superstition and arrieration in the middle of France was obviously a subject of curiosity in this time.

On the subject of the ecological drivers of historic wolf attacks in France and media sensationalism surrounding these another interesting thing I would mention is the parallel between these and the current and fairly recent historic situation in Northern India.

There was this documentary I watched a couple of years ago about a spate of fatal attacks on humans by wolves in India during the 1990's (wish I could remember the name but my memory fails me) and there were striking similarities with the case of Gevaudan.

There have been many wolf attacks in Nothern India but I think it was about this case that is mentioned in this old newspaper article:

CNN - Man-eating wolves terrorize Indian villages - July 22, 1997

These fatal attacks were mostly on children who were working as shepherds guarding livestock in rural areas where wild ungulate prey had died from diseases transmitted from livestock or been driven out by competition from these herds.

The reaction to these animals by people was very suprising too in its parallels because the survivors of the attacks were adamant that the attacking animal was not a wolf but instead described it as a demonic or a ferocious humanoid type creature.

The media and even a conservation biologist who specialized in wolves too were adamant that these animals were not wolves (in the case of the conservationist because apparently wolves never kill humans ) but had to be some other kind of animal like a hyena or a leopard etc.

The sensationalism and hysteria driven by these narratives combined with the inability of the authorities to get rid of the attacking animals became so intense that it led to serious social unrest which led to police being killed by rioters.

Eventually when the animals were caught and killed they turned out to be a scrawny breeding pair of wolves (even the survivors of the attacks said that they didn't resemble the creature that had attacked him) which apparently had lost a litter of pups due to a village culling.

 

[Onychorhynchus coronatus]

To the Senufo peoples of West Africa the Cape buffalo is an animal imbued with complex cultural significance across different themes such as hunting, law ,traditional medicine and black magic:

The Cape buffalo is primarily seen as a symbol of strength and courage in hunting to the Senufo:

"In Senufo thought hunters are likened to the strength and fearlessness of the so-called black buffalo (Syncerus caffer brachyceros)."

A secret society / cult comprised of healers, herbalists and medicine men once existed amongst the Senufo known as the "Nookaariga" who incorporate the imagery / iconography of the buffalo in their art and rituals and whose name translates as "to change into a buffalo":

"The Nookaariga members were greatly feared for their mystical power to transform themselves into buffalo—the name of the society literally meaning ‘to change into a buffalo’. According to Convers (1998:78), this metamorphosis took place when the association members acted as executors of laws established by the Chief of the Earth."

The buffalo is an ever present image within the cult of the Nookaariga because the mythological significance of this animal which was believed to have imparted magical powers to the tribe:

"The horns seen in Nookaariga-related art forms refer to the mythical buffalo bull that first revealed his secret knowledge of healing and magical powers of transformation to the Senufo hunter, founder of the first Healers’ Society."

Like the buffalo itself the cult of the Nookaariga as a system of law was greatly feared by people and particularly by those who had transgressed the law and who would face justice at the hands of cult members dressed as buffalos:

"Concealed by the darkness of the night and wearing wooden clogs with soles carved in the shape of hooves, the members would set out to punish criminals. It was on these occasions that a clan dignitary was dressed with a mask known as nupe-nyongo, while at the same time the Chief of the Earth himself would wear a horned helmet, called nyon-nyikaryi-tongo"


Sources: "Buffalo helmets of Tussian and Siemu peoples of Burkina Faso", Constantine Petridis, 2008 (Journal: African arts).


Photo credits to @Therabu and @Tim May.

 

[Onychorhynchus coronatus]

To the Chamba tribe of Cameroon and Nigeria the forest buffalo is an animal that stands in direct contrast to the Cape buffalo which is associated with aggression and masculinity.

The forest buffalo is seen as a symbol of maternity to the Chamba due to its social behaviour:

"The behavior of the latter two types, especially the forest buffalo, makes the bush-cow a very appropriate image of maternity. Highly social and more sedentary than the savanna species, bush-cows live in small groups composed of females and their young."

Because of these associations many masks carved by the Chamba are done so in the shape of the head of the forest buffalo and are used in dances and rituals that symbolize the bush spirit and maternality of the forest buffalo cows.

Sources: "Buffalo helmets of Tussian and Siemu peoples of Burkina Faso", Constantine Petridis, 2008 (Journal: African arts).


Photo credits to @Nick@Amsterdam's and @gulogulogulo.